ANTARCTICA

Antarctica

Antarctica is the southernmost, coldest, driest, windiest, and least populated continent on the planet. It is only the fifth largest continent but holds roughly 70% of Earth's freshwater reserves.

Antarctica also contains the largest unclaimed territory on Earth: Marie Byrd Land (with an area of 1,610,000 km²).

Being so inaccessible, humans were slow to reach here. This makes its history relatively short -- but unusually interesting.

c. 340 BC

Aristotle

In book II of Meteorologica (c.340 BC), Aristotle speculated:

"There are two inhabitable sections of the earth: one near our upper, or nothern pole, the other near the other or southern pole; and their shape is like that of a tambourine. If you draw lines from the centre of the earth they cut out a drum-shaped figure. The lines form two cones; the base of the one is the tropic, of the other the ever visible circle, their vertex is at the centre of the earth. Two other cones towards the south pole give corresponding segments of the earth. These sections alone are habitable. Beyond the tropics no one can live: for there the shade would not fall to the north, whereas the earth is known to be uninhabitable before the sun is in the zenith or the shade is thrown to the south: and the regions below the Bear are uninhabitable because of the cold."

c. 650 AD

Hui Te Rangiora

19th century New Zealand ethnologist Stephenson Percy Smith recorded a lot of Maori and Polynesian oral tradition.

One notable story recorded by Smith was of Hui Te Rangiora/Ui Te Rangiora, a Rarotongan navigator. Te Rangiora sailed south in a vessel called Te Ivi o Atea and reached a land called Tai-uka-a-pia. This is described as "a foggy, misty, and dark place not seen by the sun. Other things are like rocks, whose summits pierce the skies, they are completely bare and without any vegetation on them".

Smith was convinced this referred to Antarctica.

However, the consensus of modern scholarship (including from Ngai Tahu Maori) is that seventh century Polynesian sailors reaching the Antarctic is unlikely. For context, this is at least four centuries before Polynesians reached New Zealand.

Did Polynesians reach Antarctica?

This depends on your definition. The short answer is: No, Polynesians never reached the Antarctic continent. However, they did get as far as the Subantarctic.

c. 1400s

Polynesians reach the Auckland Islands

There is archaeological evidence of Polynesian settlement on Enderby Island (460km south of mainland New Zealand). This is the southernmost known point of Polynesian exploration.

Rubbish left behind by Polynesian settlers and their trusty dogs (tools, fish hooks, and animal bones) at Sandy Bay have been radiocabon dated to the thirteenth or fourteenth century. These chaps lived on a hearty diet of sea lions, fur seals, albatrosses, and penguins. They were on the Enderby island for at least one summer but don't seem to have made a permanent settlement.

The Auckland Islands were uninhabited when they were found by a European whaling ship in 1806.

1520

Portuguese-born explorer Ferdinand Magellan crossed through the Straits of Magellan during the world's first circumnavigation. He believed the islands of Terra del Fuego belonged to the unknown southern continent.

1525

In 1525, Spanish explorer Francisco de Hoces discovered the Drake Passage (the ocean between the southern tip of South America and Antarctica).

As an interesting aside, in 1494 Spain and Portgual signed a treaty dividing the entire world between them. In 1539, Charles V of Spain created an office called "the Governorate of terra Australis". This essentially made some poor sod in Spain reponsible for a non-existent continent.

1603

In 1603, Spanish explorer Gabriel de Castilla reported seeing snow covered mountains south of the Drake Passage. As with Te Rangiora's story, this is disputed.

1675

English merchant Anthony de la Roche visited Peru in 1674 and attempted to retun home via Cape Horn. During the voyage from Chile to Brazil, bad weather off the coast of Staten Island caused his ship to be blown severely off course. They eventually landed on South Georgia Island.

1773

On his first voyage (1768-1771), James Cook observed the Transit of Venus in Tahiti then searched in vain for Terra Australis. He sailed around the coastline of New Zealand and Eastern Australia, unable to find the missing continent. Back in Britain, the Royal Society (notably Alexander Dalrymple) insisted that a Southern Continent should exist. So Cook, with the ships Resolution and Adventure, was sent back to have another look.

In December of 1772, Cook found an Island (Bouvet Island) reported by an earlier French navigator. They kept heading south and eventually met "ice islands". On 17 January 1773, they reached the Antarctic circle. Then the cold forced them to retreat.

1820

The first confirmed sighting of the Antarctic continent was on 27 January 1820. This was from a Russian expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev with ships Vostok and Mirny. They also discovered the first islands south of the Antarctic circle.

1821

The first landing on the Antarctic continent is reported to have been American sealer John Davis on 7 February 1821. Historians dispute this.

1839 - 1843

The Ross expedition into the Antarctic (1839 to 1843) was led by James Clark Ross with two warships, HMS Erebus and HMS Terror. It explored the Ross Sea and discovered the Ross Ice Shelf. On the expedition, Ross discovered the Transantarctic Mountains and the volcanoes Erebus and Terror (named after the ships). The expedition inferred the position of the South Magnetic Pole (although failed to reach it), and was the last major voyage of exploration made wholly under sail.

1853

The first documented landing on the mainland of East Antarctica was at Victoria Land by the American sealer Mercator Cooper on 26 January 1853.

1898

The Belgian Antarctic Expedition of 1897-1899 was the first expedition to winter in the Antarctic region. Led by Adrien de Gerlache de Gomery aboard the RV Belgica, it was the first Belgian Antarctic expedition and is considered the first expedition of the Heroic Age.

During the long polar night, one sailor went mad and left the ship to "walk home to Belgium". Also, quite naturally, scurvy became an issue. Frederick Cook, an American onboard, believed raw meat was a cure based on stories he had heard about Robert Peary (an American Arctic explorer). He insisted the crew eat raw penguin and seal meat every day. Gradually, the crew recovered.

It's now known that raw meat and organs contain small amounts of Vitamin C.

1901 - 1904

This expedition was led by Robert Falcon Scott with the aim of reaching the South Pole. The Discovery Expedition (officially the British National Antarctic Expedition), was the first official British Antarctic exploration since Ross' expedition (sixty years earlier).

While unsuccessful, they discovered the Cape Crozier emperor penguin colony, King Edward VII Land, and the Polar Plateau.

1901 - 1903

The first German expedition to Antarctica led by geologist Erich von Drygalski with the ship Gauss (named after the scientist). The goal of the expedition was to venture into the unexplored land south of the Kerguelen Islands.

Gauss spent nearly 14 months trapped in ice. But they discovered Kaiser Wilhelm II Land and a volcano -- so it wasn't a complete waste of time.

1904

Omond House, the first permanent base in Antarctica, was built during the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition.

1907 - 1909

The Nimrod Expedition of 1907-1909, was the first of three successful expeditions to the Antarctic led by Ernest Shackleton.

The main target of this expedition was to be the first to the South Pole. They failed in this objective (again) -- but got pretty close. Shackleton was only 180 km off, setting a new record for southward exploration.

Interestingly, this expedition had a lack government support and was entirely dependent on private loans. As a result, the expedition was done on a budget and the ship Nimrod was considerably smaller than Scott's Discovery.

This trip earnt Shackleton a knighthood.

1910 - 1912

This was the first Antarctic expedition from a non-European country.

The objective of this expedition was to reach the South Pole. However, they failed to reach Antarctica during the first Antarctic season so had to spent winter in Australia. On the second Antarctic season (1911-1912), they reached the continent. No scientific discoveries, were made on this trip. However, they did set some records:

1. First landing on Edward VII Land
2. Fastest recorded sledging journey
3. Reaching the easternmost point of the Antarctic coast by ship

14 December 1911

The Roald Amundsen expedition (1910-1912) kept its intentions secret.

Amundsen was initially planning to reach the North Pole but, upon hearing of Britain's Terra Nova Expedition, changed his plans. He didn't tell anyone about his revised plans out of fear that he would lose his funding. Scott visited Norway to test his motor sledges and called Amundsen to discuss cooperation - Amundsen didn't answer the phone. Unlike the British, the Norwegians were perfectly happy using skis and sledge dogs, which they believed were the most efficient transport option.

On 9 August 1910, the ship Fram left Norway for the South Pole. They arrived at the Bay of Whales on 14 January 1911 and set up base (Christened Framheim/home of Fram).

On the 8th of March, in difficult conditions, they stopped at 82° S. The dogs were exhausted. The party then turned for home and reached Framheim on 22 March.

The sun set over Framheim on 21 April, not to reappear for four months. Amundsen was well aware of the problems faced by Belgica and ensured the party was kept busy. At sunrise on 24 August seven sledges were made ready.

However, the cold delayed them for another fortnight. On 8 September 1911, when the temperature rose to -27 °C, Amundsen became impatient, and the party set off. One man recorded that his sledge, with Amundsen aboard, nearly fell down a crevasse when a snow bridge broke underneath them. Despite this near death experience they were covering more than 28 km a day, and reached their 82° S depot on 5 November. On 17 November they hit the Transantarctic Mountains. They spent a few days poking around the foothills and eventually found an apparently clear route, a steep glacier 56 km long leading upwards to the plateau. After three days of difficult climbing the party reached the glacier summit.

When the party reached the summit of the glacier (at 85° S), Amundsen made preparations for the final stage of the adventure. With heavyy hearts, they were forced to kill and eat some of their dogs. On 25 November, they set off into the fog. On 8 December the Norwegians passed Shackleton's record of 88°.

On 14 December 1911, at about 3 pm, the party reached the vicinity of the South Pole and planted the Norwegian flag.

On 25 January 1912, at 4 am, they arrived back at Framheim.

On 7 March, Fram reached Hobart and sent telegrams to his brother and to the king of Norway, reporting the news.

1910 - 1913

Led by Captain Robert Falcon Scott, the objective of the Terra Nova Expedition was to "reach the South Pole, and to secure for the British Empire the honour of this achievement".

The ship Terra Nova set sail from Cardiff on 15 June 1910.

In Melbourne, Scott received a telegram informing him that Amundsen was "proceeding south". This was the first indication to Scott that he was in a race.

Terra Nova left New Zealand for Antartica on 29 November 1910. The overladen ship encountered a storm and lost two ponies, a dog, 10,000 kg of coal and 300 L of petrol. The ship then met pack ice, stalling the expedition by twenty days.

They eventually anchored at Cape Evans and lost one of their motorised sledges during unloading. They assembled a hut and had their base ready on 18 January 1911. On 26 January, Campbell took the ship and headed east towards the Bay of Whales, where he discovered Amundsen's camp. Campbell returned to Cape Evans and Scott received news of the Norwegians on 22 February.

On 24 October, with two motor sledges, Scott set out for the South Pole. By 1 November, both motor sledges were broken. They reached the Pole on 17 January (over a month after Amundsen).

During the return journey, Edgar Evans (after suffering from frostbite) collapsed, 17 February 1912. Scott expected to meet dog teams at 82°, but there was no sign of them. Oates, with frostbitten hands and feet, announced "I am just going outside and may be some time" then left the tent and walked to his death on 16 March 1912.

Scott's last diary entry is from 29 March 1912.

1914 - 1917

The news of Amundsen's conquest of the South Pole reached Shackleton on 11 March 1912, to which he responded: "The discovery of the South Pole will not be the end of Antarctic exploration". The last achievement to be unlocked in Antarctica was an overland crossing of the continent.

According to legend, Shackleton posted the following advertisement in a London paper:

The expedition required two ships (Endurance and Aurora): one at each end of the continent. The plan was for Endurance to reach Vahsel Bay, however, it got trapped in ice and sunk before getting there.

The 28 men that were left stranded managed to survive for several months in ramshackle camps. They eventually made their way to Elephant Island on lifeboats. Shackleton and five others then made a journey across to South Georgia, where a rescue was arranged for the remaining men.

On 5 December 1917, when Shackleton arrived at South Georgia, he asked how the Great War had ended. The response was: "The war isn't over. Millions are dead. Europe is mad. The world is mad."

On the other side of the continent, the Ross Sea party overcame great hardships to fulfill its mission. Aurora was blown from her moorings during a gale and was unable to return, leaving the shore party stranded without proper supplies or equipment. Although the depots were still able to be laid, three people died.

1928

Hubert Wilkins (a member of Shackleton's final visit to the Antarctic) flew over Antarctica.

1955 - 1958

The expedition was headed by British explorer Dr Vivian Fuchs and New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary leading the New Zealand Ross Sea Support team. After wintering at Shackleton Base (1957), Fuchs set out on the transcontinental journey in November 1957, with a twelve-man team travelling in six vehicles.

On the opposite side of the continent, Hillary's team set up Scott Base (Fuchs' final destination) at McMurdo Sound on the Ross Sea. Hillary's party reached the South Pole on 3 January 1958, making them the third party ever to reach the Pole overland (preceded by Amundsen in 1911 and Scott in 1912). Fuchs' team arrived at the South Pole from the opposite direction on 19 January 1958, meeting Hillary.

On 2 March 1958, Fuchs succeeded in reaching Scott Base, completing the first overland crossing of the continent via the South Pole.

1 December 1959

The Antarctic Treaty was the first arms control agreement of the Cold War.

It defines Antarctica as all the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude and designates the continent as a scientific preserve, establishing freedom of scientific investigation, and banning military activity. The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during 1957-1958 were:

• Argentina
• Australia
• Belgium
• Chile
• France
• Japan
• New Zealand
• Norway
• South Africa
• the Soviet Union
• the United Kingdom
• the United States

As of 2023, the treaty has 56 signatories.

7 January 1978

Emilio Marcos de Palma was born near Hope Bay on 7 January 1978, becoming the first baby born on the continent. He also was born farther south than anyone in history

28 November 1979

On 28 November 1979, an Air New Zealand DC-10 on a sightseeing trip crashed into Mount Erebus on Ross Island, killing all 257 people on board.

18 January 1997

Borge Ousland finished the first unassisted Antarctic solo crossing.

2010

This fancy science machine was built in in 2010 and by 2013 had detected 28 neutrinos originating outside the Solar system.

I'm not entirely sure what country to attribute this to, but they have a website.

21 December 2020

By 14 April 2020, bases in Antarctica contained only skeleton crews, with limited visitors.

The first confirmed cases were announced on 21 December 2020 by the government of Chile. At least 36 people, including 10 civilians and 26 officers of the Chilean Army and Navy, were confirmed as positive COVID-19 cases.

People coming to Antarctica research stations have to undergo isolation and COVID-19 screening (it's unclear if this is still the case).

Covid-19 didn't reach New Zealand's Scott Base until February 2023.

9 March 2022

The wreck of Endurance was discovered on 5 March 2022. This was over a century after Shackleton watched it sink.

August 2023

The World Meterological Organisation reports sea ice is the lowest on record. It was 17% below average for June - August 2023.